1984 by George Orwell Essay Example for Free

1984 by George Orwell Essay The theme of power is prominent in the dystopian novel 1984 by George Orwell and throughout this book he develops two different types of power. This is collective power and individual power, which will both be addressed separately. Firstly, the notion of power through the collective is characterised through the totalitarian Party in Airstrip One, Oceania, one of the three super-states. In chapter 3 Part 3, Winston claims that, â€Å"The Party seeks power entirely for its own sake†, and that power comes from the oppression of sensual experience and basic human instincts and through the manipulation of history. In regards to the oppression of sensual experience and basic human instincts, the novel opens with a characterisation of Winston’s apartment block. It are described as smelling of â€Å"boiled cabbages and old rugs†. Through olfactory imagery, the reader is able to understand the conditions of the Outer Party member’s life as being dank and foetid, coupled with the ironic naming of the apartments as ‘victory mansion’ seems to suggest that whilst there is that pretense of both nationalism and grandeur, the reality is different. This says two things, ? rstly it shows a denial of the living conditions by the Party and secondly it expresses the societal division between the Outer Party and the Inner Party when contrasted with the vibrant living quarters of OBriens home in chapter 8 part 3. In this chapter, the visual imagry is overwhelming for both Winston and Julia through the use of synesthesia and accumulation. The effect of such a comparison epitomises the division between the two classes whereas the Inner Party, and the collective institute that makes up the Party has access to richer sensual perception in olfactory, kinesetic and gustatory senses and they can control the senses of the lesser classes. This oppression of basis human senses deprives the human body to which the Party utilises in keeping the people in a constant state of angst, which unables them to be easily manipulated into believing the Party ideology and accepting the stardard of living that is applied to the people. This is also seen with the example of the prole. The proles are just given enough to get by and due to this they do not need to become revoltuionary or question authority. In regards to the manipulation of history, the denial of past events and the establishment of falsities is a way in which the Party has control over the people. The changing of history is ? rst established in the in the ? rst chapter where Winstons work at the Ministry of Truth is discussed. Those that control the present control the past. Those that control the past control the future. This is due to two reasons. Firstly, with the control of the past, the society in the novel is without a ? rm grasp in reality and experiences are nulli? ed in the their own version of reality. Secondly, everyones experiences are institutionalised under the conformity of the past controlling independent thought and indiviuality. Winston tries to break loose from these con? nes and in his very ? rst diary entry he simply writes the date. The effect of writing his thoughts down provides an impetus for further counter-party ideology which is articulated further in the book. This brings me on to the second type of power that is addressed in George Orwells ovel. That is the power of the individual and throughout the book it is characterised through the characters of both Winston and Julia through both crimethink and rediscovering what it means to be human. One of the ? rst instances of Winstons individual power comes through the writing in his diary. Much of his writing in the ? rst chapter of part one holds little structure and contains little use of grammar devices. The effect of such writing is the demonstration of out foriegn it is for Winston in his paradigm to express his personal feelings even if, at this early stage in the novel, all his commentary have a political stance. The capitalisation of down with big brother   adds to the effect of Winstons individual power as it is a radical step away the acceptence of total party power. Julia may well be the symbol for hope that Orwell inserts into the novel to allude to the continuing resistence to totalitarianism inherent in humanity. Julia is perhaps the greatest hope for change, as her relationship with Winston is representitive of the need for the worker to form an alliance with the middle class. Julia can be seen as the ? rst person to being to change Winstons individual power through their relationship spawning in part 2. During the relationship, the reader can note an increase in sensual imagery such as the gustatory imagry of the jams and sugar, the auditory imagery of the singing from the proles and the bird in the woods, and the olfactory imagery of the roasted coffee. The effect of the introduction of this imagery creates a mood of comfort and relaxation, which appeals to the reader and their experiences. This gaining of the basic human insticts and experiences can be seen in colloralation with the Partys want to remove these instinct highlighting the importance that senseual perception plays in percieved or real power one has.

Hassans Story Essay Example for Free

Hassans Story Essay

Ethics of Sex in Advertising

Ethics of Sex in Advertising ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether or not it is ethical to use sexual appeals in advertising. The study also examines (1) if sex actually sells and if so, when and where is it being used in advertising, (2) the use of men and women in ads of a sexual nature, and (3) the role that ethics plays in the use of sexual appeals in advertising. It is important because it not only focuses on the use of sexual appeals in advertising, but also how ethical it is to do so. The study found that sexual appeals are used often in advertising. Sex does catch peoples attention in advertisements, but usually without much brand recognition. Women have been the primary focus in sexual advertising in the past and present, but men are starting to be used more often as the sex object in advertisements. Ethics plays a definite role. There is no clear view of what is ethical and what is unethical when it comes to advertising, but with careful consideration and planning, it is possible for advertisers to find a common ground and use sexual appeals without offending people in the process. INTRODUCTION As stated by Richmond and Hartman (1982), Every media consumer is alert to sex in advertising. Its pervasive use and misuse are constantly before us, and typically elicit strong criticism (p.53). As one can see, the use of sex in advertising has been happening for several decades and the reason for it? It works. Advertisements that are sexy in nature tend to be remembered more often than advertisements that are not. The question to ask, though, is how ethical is it to use sexual appeals in advertisements? This research paper will discuss whether or not sex sells, when and where sexual appeals are used in advertising, who is the primary focus in the ads, and the ethical dilemma of using sexual appeals in advertising. This study is important to its readers because it not only focuses on the use of sexual appeals in advertising but it also looks at how ethical it is to do so. Advertising draws people in and coaxes them into buying things based on how the ads make them feel. It is not always fair to assume that everyone knows what the advertisers are doing. DOES SEX SELL? Does sex sell? Actually, sex does not sell, but sexiness does (Cebrzynski, 2000, p. 14). Using sex appeals in advertising is a good way to target certain market segments but not all. What is identified as sexual appeals in advertising? Where and when should sex be used in advertising? Does the use of sexual appeals lead to an advantage for brand remembrance? These questions will be the next topics of discussion for this paper. The use of sexual appeals in advertising has been happening for decades. Sex is everywhere. There are several different distinctions as to what is being categorized as sex appeal. A study conducted by Ramirez and Reichert (2000) revealed four characteristics of sexy ads: (1) physical features of models, (2) behavior/movement, (3) intimacy between models, and (4) contextual features such as camera effects (p.267). Ramirez and Reichert (2000) sought to find what people consider sexy in advertising. The most common referent was physical features (66%), followed by a models movements and verbal and nonverbal communication (39%), contextual features (26%), and proxemics (15%) (p.269). They made an important note that what people referred to as sexy differed gender to gender. The study showed that females responded more to context than males did at 35% to 20%. It also showed that 28% of the females responded to proxemics or references to physical distance or relative interaction between models compared to 6% of the males (p.269). WHEN AND WHERE SHOULD SEX BE USED IN ADVERTISING? This section will discuss the usefulness of sexual appeals in advertising, but not from the ethical stand point. Sexual appeals only work in some advertisements. Many studies have been conducted regarding this subject. Jones, Stanaland, and Gelb (1998) conducted an experiment to see how men and women responded to beefcake and cheesecake ads. A beefcake ad is an ad that has a sexy male model as the center of the ad. A cheesecake ad is an ad that has a sexy female model as the center of the ad. The study found that women had higher recognition scores for the ad showing a nonsexy male model than for the beefcake ad, and men had higher recall scores for the ad showing a nonsexy female than for the cheesecake ad. The study also found that women had lower recognition scores than men for the beefcake ad, and women viewing the cheesecake ad had higher recognition scores than women viewing the beefcake ad. Also, men had lower recall than women for the cheesecake ad. They concluded their study with the statement, The nonsexy ads seemed to do the most good with the least harm (p.36). It is important to evaluate the audience who will be viewing the ads before invoking a sexual appeal into the ad. A recent study conducted by Whipple and McManamon (2002) found that there is not an industry-wide conspiracy that advertisers use men as voiceovers in ads. Rather, individual advertisers and agencies make decisions about specific products and ad executions. For instance, a spokesperson and an announcers sex can affect advertising evaluations for a gender-specific product but not for non- gender imaged products (p.87). Advertising research reveals that sexual appeals are attention getting, arousing, affect inducing, and memorable (Reichert, Heckler, and Jackson, 2001, p. 14). But, although studies have demonstrated that sexual appeals attract attention to the ad, they do so typically without a corresponding advantage for brand information processing. Although using sexual appeals in brand advertisements has not proven to be as effective as needed, using them in social marketing may be beneficial. From a social marketing perspective, sexual appeals may be beneficial for the simple reason that they are attention-getting and potentially motivating desirable message characteristics in a saturated media environment (Reichert, Heckler, and Jackson, 2001, p. 18). The use of overt sexual appeals in print advertising has increased considerably in contemporary advertising practice. According to an article by Henthorne and LaTour (1994), today it is common for a reader of any age to pick up a general-interest consumer magazine and find an advertisement featuring provocatively posed and attired models for many consumer products (p.82). During the past decade, the use of sexual appeals in print advertisement has become commonplace. Among the most memorable companies, which base their advertisement on sexual appeals, is Calvin Klein. Their ads usually feature a nude couple in a somewhat provocative position. Also, many of the print advertisements for Calvin Klein jeans are just as suggestive and memorable (p.82). Ads of this type are designed to elicit what the originators hope is a vicarious experience of sensuality (Henthorne and LaTour, 1994, p. 82). In the 2000s, the use of sexual appeal in advertising continues to be a very controversial topic. A 1994 study done by Henthorne and LaTour revealed that an ad which contains a strong overt sexual appeal results in a significantly less favorable attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention than an ad that contains little or no sexual appeal (p.90). For example, a very controversial AXE subway ad in Mexico has an arrow pointing up the shiny miniskirt of a woman driving a convertible sports car. Another ad shows a man with his arm around a woman with the arrow pointing down the front of her low-cut shirt. Next to the arrows is the statement: To get what you want (Ordonez, 2003, p.48). In this case, strong overt sexual appeal is being used in order to place brand remembrance on AXE. As a result, the brand also has been labeled as a company which is involved in strong overt sexual advertising (Ordonez, 2003, p.48). Although the use of highly sexual print ads is viewed more negatively, the attitude of women is significantly more negative than that of their male counterpart. As the morals and ethics of society change over time, what is considered appropriate and acceptable by society must also change. Therefore it is necessary to re-evaluate the assumptions on which strategic decisions are based when it comes to print advertising. Advertisers need to look at potential social issues and consequences at stake when considering an advertisement based on sexual appeal. Ethical issues involving sexual appeal in commercials are more controversial than those involving print advertising due to the high number of viewers that see commercials. Sexual appeals in commercials have many types and consist of a variety of elements. They often involve visual elements such as attractive models, and they may portray varying degrees of nudity and suggestiveness. Although commercials often use visual elements for sexuality, appeals may also include verbal elements and music. A study conducted by Severn, Belch, and Belch (1990) found that the use of sexual advertising appeals detracts from the receivers processing of message content. The use of sexual appeals in the study seemed to detract from the processing and retention of message arguments. However, it did appear that the recipients would focus their attention more on the execution elements of ads using this type of appeal (p.21). With the use of sexual appeals in commercials being both controversial and product ive in remembering a product, there is a fine line that advertisers should follow to keep the controversy to a minimum. According to Gould (1994), advertisers can attempt to accommodate the seemingly conflicting concerns of the public by following four guidelines: (1) targeting commercials as carefully as possible to avoid unnecessary conflict and to minimize the viewing of sexual appeals by people who might be disconcerted by them, (2) heightening their own awareness of the impact of their sexual appeals on the public at large as well as on their target market, (3) testing the effects of their commercials, not only on their target, but also on other members of the public who might see their commercials, and (4) considering the effects of their commercials in prompting individuals, whether in their target or not, to take actions that have negative consequences (p.78). Regardless of the guidelines, it is difficult for both managerial and governmental policy makers to know how to appr oach this sensitive ethical dilemma because of the variety of ethical and moral standards of todays public. In any market, advertising and promotions are partly an educated guessing game. You are bound to have unexpected hits and disappointing flops. At home or abroad, the old saying almost always proves true: It pays to advertise (Zhan, 1999, p.83). ARE WOMEN THE PRIMARY FOCUS? For years, many have believed that women are the primary focus of sex appeals used in advertising. This is not necessarily correct. Women seem to be the target most recognized in sexual appeals, but men have been targeted more recently. Women have often been the targets of sexual advertising because it seems to work in many cases. Sex is a powerful and easy method of getting male attention and making a product desirable. In advertising, it is easy to get a mans attention by using womens bodies and associating getting the women if he buys the product (Taflinger, 1996, p.8). The most well known target of women as sexual appeals has been in beer commercials and advertisements. Usually the ads go something like this: a beautiful woman is sitting at a bar and a man comes up and she does not notice him at all. Then he orders a certain kind of beer and all of the sudden, he is desirable to this woman. They then get caught up in the moment and ultimately the man gets this woman (because of the beer). Another example of the man getting the hot woman because of a particular product that supposedly makes the man more desirable to the women is the AXE commercial. AXE is a body spray for men. In the commercial, the men who use AXE get beautiful women. In fact, AXE is so effective that if in any way you come in contact with this body spray, you will be instantly wanted. The commercial features an old man getting a young, hot woman because of the AXE Effect (2004). Women are used over and over again in advertising as sex appeals. But, some do not realize that these advertisements are often targeted at women as well. Victorias Secret is a good example of this. They want women to think that if they buy Victorias Secret products, they could be like the beautiful, sexy models on their commercials. Obviously these bra and panties are not going to look this good on just anyone. But, at first glance, a woman might think, Wow, she looks awesome; I should get that outfit so I can look that good too. Women are not the only focus in sexual appeal advertising. Men play a large role as well. According to Taflinger (1996), It is rare for advertising to use sex as an appeal for women. Women are often less interested in the sex act itself for its own sake. They are interested in sex for what it can mean in the future. They may enjoy it as much as men, but for them it has far greater significance. Advertising cannot take advantage of a womans instinctive sexual desire because advertisings job is not to build for the future-it is to sell a product now (p.6). Here, Taflinger tries to explain that women are not interested in sexual appeals on television. They are interested in sex for their future. Although this seems to be correct in some instances, it is questionable when thinking about all of the ads that target men as the sex selling object. Some recent ads that target men as sex objects and sexual appeals are Abercrombie Fitch and Calvin Klein. Abercrombie Fitch is notorious for using men as sexual objects in their advertising. Many times, it is a large group of men standing around half naked if not completely nude. Although this company is a clothing company, they mainly advertise using naked pictures of their models. This does not make much sense except to assume they are trying to sell sex. Sex does sell for Abercrombie. But is it to women? Many questions have been asked about the nature of Abercrombies advertisements. Some speculation has brought up the question: who are they trying to target with these advertisements? Men are used over and over again in advertising, although it is generally targeted at the younger market. It is targeted at not only women but men also. This generation of women is becoming more open to sexual advertisements and is more apt to be enticed by them. According to a study conducted by Morrison and Sherman (1972), when looking at nudity and sexual arousal together, the majority of the women who rated ads high in nudity also reported being sexually aroused by the ads. This is contrary to traditional views that women are not as sexually aroused by nudity as men are (p.19). THE ROLE OF ETHICS Abercrombie, Express, Sony, Calvin Klein: all big companies with big brands who promote to the public in a big way; therefore, they rely heavily on agency expertise to help them do so. Likewise, in the ethical paradigm that is marketing through sex to the public, who should be accountable for the way in which the campaign is conducted? Clearly, agencies shoulder the majority of the responsibility for the campaigns they deliver. Ensuring compliance with regulatory guidelines often falls to the agency and although the client does hold the ultimate responsibility, they will often follow the agencys lead. As a result, a true partnership needs to be developed in order to ensure a sustainable relationship based on trust and transparency. This is necessary to get the success that is sought after (Gould, 1994, p.76). How can agencies and their clients establish this desired state of partnership? By seeing what the goal is-sexual appealing, successful campaigns that send sales through the roof and still makes sure negative publicity stays away from the brand. A helpful path that leads agencies along the route to creating effective and responsible advertising entails five key elements: the brief, time pressures, competition, measures of success, and commercial pressures. The brief is important because a good brief lays the foundation for a good campaign. Second, sufficient time creates the conditions necessary to create a great idea. Third, do what is right for the brand and the target audience regardless of the competition. Fourth, evaluate your measures of success qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Last, respect the relevant codes of practice and do not let commercial pressure affect your campaign. Thoroughly implementing these key elements will help agencies and companies launch a successful campaign. The measure of a great agency is its ability to help the promoter navigate that path and counter balance the pressures it brings (Gould, 1994). Working in partnership with the promoter, the agency can embrace the responsibilities it holds and have fun, while keeping the public safe, warm, and fully protected. While ethics and the role which it plays in advertising continue to generate a great deal of attention, the role of the educator has become an important factor for advertising. Social changes in the U.S. have further complicated the situation and raised the need for attention to ethical advertising. The use of sex and sexual appeal in advertising is at an all time high (Ramirez and Reichert, 2000, p.267). With this being said, professional educators play a big role in keeping this trend ethical and sexy at the same time. Educators need to firmly imply the positives of ethical advertising and behavior compared to possible downfalls of unethical advertising. Simply put, the philosophy has been that all advertisers must fish in the same pond and when the waters are muddied by unethical advertising, everyone catches less fish. This is a very true philosophical statement that educators can preach to their students. The result has been to exhort ethical behavior because it is good business . A further reason for educators to preach ethical standards has been the clear understanding that such activity can often be used to head off governmental regulation which the industry always feels would be impossibly restrictive (Fraedrich and Ferrell, 1992). As one may know, the foundations and fundamentals of students are what they will rely on when in the workplace; therefore, good fundamentals and practices are a key component for ensuring ethical behaviors during stressful situations. In short, the role in the development of advertising ethics lies in a proper emphasis of advertising as an institution to assist the students in proper and ethical behavior in the advertising industry. Advertising will continue to have a weak public image until the field of practice is built on a more professional base. With educators encouraging thoughtful attention to problematic aspects of advertising, students will be better mindful of ethical questions and situations. As a result, the students will attain their goal of a Professional Advertising Education. To understand more fully the positive and negative effects and ethical dilemmas arising from the use of sexual appeals in advertising, one must consider the fundamental concepts contained in normative ethical theories of moral philosophy (Gould, 1994, p.78). Normative ethical theories can either be classified as teleological or deontological. Teleological philosophies are defined as philosophies concerned with the moral worth of an individual behavior (Fraedrich Ferrell, 1992). Teleological philosophies maintain that the individual should examine and determine the probable consequences of alternative actions and behaviors in a specific situation (Henthome LaTour, 1994, p.82). Deontological philosophies focus on specific actions or behaviors of the individual without regard to the consequences of the actions. Thus, deontology opposes the principal tenet of teleology (Fraedrich Ferrell, 1992). Deontology supports the theory that the rightness or wrongness of actions should be judged by the actions themselves instead of the outcomes. It is not realistic to believe that individuals make ethical decisions strictly on the basis of either teleology or deontology. Individuals do not use clearly defined concepts of ethical philosophies in making specific ethical evaluations but a mixing of theses philosophies are used. With this being known, the expectations of a print ad displaying strong sexual appeal should yield a significantly less favorable attitude toward the ad, the brand, and purchase intention than an ad containing only mild sexual appeal. This expectation is supported by a study conducted by Henthorne and LaTour (1994). It was clear in the study that undesirable reactions and consequences might result from the use of strong overt sexual appeals (p.88). Although risky, sexual appeal is often a creative way to capture the consumers attention. The point at which sexual appeal may be viewed as unethical and counter productive is what advertisers are concerned with. Sex objectification is very much in the eyes of the beholder and, therefore, leaves the object of effective advertising very challenging. As a result, there is no simple solution when it comes to the use of sexual appeal in advertising. The best advice is for advertisers to recognize the ethical complexity of sexual appeal in adve rtising and incorporate that understanding in their strategic thought. Henthorne and LaTour, (1994) state As the ethical considerations of society change over time, what is considered appropriate and acceptable in advertising must also change (p.88). So, it is imperative to continually re-evaluate what society would consider acceptable and consider the full level of consequences of their actions before considering what they perceive as ethically acceptable. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The study discussed whether it is ethical to use sexual appeals in advertising. The study also examines (1) if sex actually sells, when and where it is being used in advertising, (2) the use of men and women in ads of a sexual nature, and (3) the role that ethics plays in the use of sexual appeals in advertising. This study is important because it not only focuses on the use of sexual appeals in advertising, but it also looks at how ethical it is to do so. Advertisers try to appeal to peoples emotions and coerce them into buying things they really do not need. The following conclusions were drawn from this research: Q. Sex sells sometimes. After evaluating the characteristics used in ads as sexy, the main characteristic identified was physical features. Sex appeal does not always lead to brand remembrance, but rather using sexual appeals in social marketing, like condom ads, will prove to be a better fit and will work better to send a message. Sex is used everywhere in advertising including print ads, commercials, and on the Internet. Sexual advertisements are mainly targeted at younger groups that have a different, more open view of sex. R. Answering the question: Are women the primary focus in sexual appeals? Yes, they are. With the growing open mindedness to sex that the younger females in America are experiencing, men have been targeted more and more. Abercrombie and Fitch uses male models as sex objects in almost every ad. They are even known for targeting the homosexual market. The use of men in advertising is growing and will be highly used in the future. The role that ethics plays in using sexual appeals in advertising is that there is a fine line between what people think is acceptable and what they think is unacceptable. The main thing to consider is what is the product or service that is being sold and who is the targeted consumer. For example, it would be unethical to put sexual appealing commercials on Nickelodeon. REFERENCES Abercrombie Fitch Advertisement (n.d.). Retrieved March 16, 2004, from Abercrombie Fitch Website: www.abercrombie.com. AXE Nun (2004). Collections: AXE Effect. Cebrzynski, G. (2000, March 13). Sex or sexy? The difference is that one sells, and the other doesnt. [Electronic version]. Nations Restaurant News, 34, 11, 14. Fraedrich, J. Ferrell, O. C. (1992). Cognitive consistency of marketing managers in ethical situations. [Electronic version]. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 20, 245-252. Jones, M., Stanaland, A., Gelb, B. (1998). Beefcake and cheesecake: Insights for advertisers. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 27(2), 33-51. Gould, S. (1994 September). Sexuality and ethics in advertising: A research agenda and policy guideline perspective. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 23(3), 73-81. La Tour, M. Henthorne, T.(1994, September). Ethical judgments of sexual appeals in print advertising. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 23(3), 87-91. Morrison, B. Sherman, R. (1972, April). Who responds to sex in adverting? [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 12(2), 15-19. On Board the Porpoise. (1996). Retrieved April 5, 2004, from Commercial Closet Website, http://www.commercialcloset.org Ordonez, I. (2003, September). Peddling sex: Taut and trim flesh hits billboards as advertisers aim low. [Electronic Version]. Business Mexico, 13(9), 48. Ramirez, A. Reichert, T. (2000). Defining sexually oriented appeals in advertising: A grounded theory investigation. [Electronic version]. Advances in Consumer Research, 27, 269-273. Reichert, T., Heckler, S., Jackson, S. (2001, Spring). The effects of sexual social marketing appeals on cognitive processing and persuasion. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 30(1), 13-28. Richmond, D. Hartman, T. (1982). Sex appeal in advertising. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 22(5), 53-61. Severn, J., Belch, G., Belch, M. (1990). The effects of sexual and non-sexual advertising appeals and information level on cognitive processing and communication effectiveness. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 19(1), 14-22. Taflinger, R. (May 28, 1996). You and Me, Babe: Sex and Advertising. Retrieved March 16, 2004, from http://www.wsu.ede:80801-taflinger/sex.html. Treise, D. Weigold, M. (1994 September). Ethics in advertising: Ideological correlates of consumer perceptions. [Electronic version] Journal of Advertising, 23(3), 59-70. Victorias Secret Advertisement (2003). Retrieved March 16, 2004, from http://www.gtslade.com/vs/vs3.html Whipple, T. McManamon, M. . (2002, Summer). Implications of using male and female voices in commercials: An exploratory study. [Electronic version]. Journal of Advertising, 31(2), 79-91. Wise, G., King, A., Merenski, P. (1974, August). Reactions to sexy ads vary with age. [Electronic version]. Journal of Adverting, 14(4), 11-16. Zhan, S. (1999, March). When a picture is worth a thousand words. [Electronic version]. World Trade, 12(3), 82-83.

The Turkish Pogrom of 1955 and the Elimination of the Greek Minority of

The Reconstitution of Turkish Pogrom The chronology of the pogrom falls in a hard period, when the Cyprus issue had caused difficulties in the political relations of Greece, Turkey and England. It is considered that Hikmet Bill the owner of the Turkish journal Hurriyet and Ahmet Emin Yalmas the owner of Vatan received a large amount of money in order to create the political atmosphere of the pogrom from British sources. By July 1955, the Turkish press and some organizations such as The‘Cyprus is Turkish’, the National Federation of Turkish Students and the National Union of Turkish Students organized mass demonstrations against the Greek minority of Istanbul and the Ecumenical Patriarchate (Vryonis 2005). Nowadays, most Greeks and Turks are unaware of the fact that on the night of September 6, until the early hours of September 7, 1955 the Adnan Menderes’ government and the Turkish Intelligence Service carried out the most destructive pogrom in Europe since the well-known Krystallnacht on the eve o f the Second World War. In addition, they do not know that this pogrom damaged, and in many cases destroyed several houses, businesses, churches and institutions and that this had as a result, the elimination of the Greek minority, the oldest historical community of Turkey (Vryonis 2005). On the afternoon of September 6th 1955, a radio station in Ankara reported that a bomb exploded under mysterious circumstances in the courtyard of Kemal Atatà ¼rk’s house in Thessaloniki, causing minor damages. The reports did not produce any reaction at first. However, a few hours later the Turkish journal Istanbul Express circulated an extra edition. According to the newspaper, the birthplace of Kemal Atatà ¼rk in Thessaloniki had been bombed. ... ...were wilful violation of their religion (Vryonis 2005). In spite of this, the Greek minority of Istanbul was still possessed by an intense sense of insecurity, which has as a result, the flee of hundreds of families from their birthplaces to Greece, threatening to diminish the community as a whole. Additionally, apart from the Greek minority the Pogrom of 6-7 September delivered a severe blow to Turkish economy. Street markets in Istanbul, which were under the control of Greek merchants, covering the basic needs of the citizens of the most populous city of Turkey. Therefore, the partial destruction brought about the impoverishment to the greater part of the Turkish population, leading to significant shortages of basic goods and a rapid rise in prices. The painful condition of Turkish economy would play a significant role in the issue of payment of compensation.

The English Reformation Essays -- History England Roman Catholic Essay

The English Reformation During the reign of King Richard II "England was experiencing her first serious outbreak of heresy for nearly a millennium." This widespread heresy, known as Lollardy, held the reformation of the Catholic Church as its main motivation, and was based upon the ideas of John Wyclif, an Oxford scholar. "All kinds of men, not only in London but in widely-separated regions of the country, seized the opportunity to voice criticisms both constructive and destructive of the present state of the Church." While commoners protested and pressed for reform, going so far as to present their manifesto, the "Twelve Conclusions," to Parliament, members of the royal household were protecting John Wyclif and his ideas, John of Gaunt, son of King Edward III, and Joan of Kent, the widowed Princess of Wales, "by whose influence he was protected from ultimate disgrace (such as excommunication)," were Wyclif's supporters and protectors. Like Wyclif's Lollard heresy, the English Protestant Reformation, over one hundred years later, would draw support from both the common people and the royal establishment. Among the many causes of the Reformation, one stands out as the most important because it alone brought about a specifically English reformation. The religious drive of the common people to create a more open system of worship was a grassroots movement of reform, similar to the reformations taking place across Europe. The political ambitions of those at the highest levels of government to consolidate power in the person of the monarch, however, is what made a reformation of the Church in England into a specifically English Reformation. John Wyclif and the people who followed him reflected how royal authority could be b... ... act for the dissolution of monasteries, 1539" Given-Wilson, Chris. "Late Medieval England, 1215-1485." In The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval England, edited by Nigel Saul. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII vol. II, sec. i, pg. 259, no. 967. London, 1920. Quoted in John A. F. Thomson, The Early Tudor Church and Society, 1485-1529, (London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1993), pg. 37. Russell, Conrad. "The Reformation and the Creation of the Church of England, 1500- 1640." In The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor & Stuart Britain, edited by John Morrill. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Sheils, W. J. The English Reformation. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited, 1989. Thomson, John A. F. The Early Tudor Church and Society, 1485-1529. London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1993.

Analyzing Shakespearean Sonnet Essay -- William Shakespeare Sonnet Ess

Analyzing Shakespearean Sonnet William Shakespeare's sonnet, That Time of Year Thou Mayst in Me Behold emphasizes that death is upon us stressing on the importance of love. By using metaphors he relates death to nature. Using symbolism of autumn leaves, twilight and glowing fire evolving to one conclusion awaiting death. By using Iambic meter he is showing a rising effect to get to the climax of the sonnet. Shakespeare shows how his character is weighed down by torment that his life is coming to an end. He is in search of sympathy saying if you see me like this you will love me even more. Therefore saying, love me now before I am gone or it may be too late. That time of year thou mayst in me behold When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruin'd choirs, where late the sweet birds sang. In quatrain one, Shakespeare has come to the understanding that death is upon him by describing the changes of autumn leaves, bordering on the aging process and his hair turning gray. The boughs which shake are the tremors his body is having reminding himself once more that he is not as young as he use to be and ageing has left him feeling like he has lost the power to write. By focusing on the fact that ageing is a slow and discouraging process he is building on the hopes that someone will feel sorry for him and acknowledge the fact that he may die soon. In me thou see'st the twilight of such day As after sunset fadeth in...

Philippines Cultural Assessment Essay

The primary language that business is conducted in the Philippines is English. This is a result of the American influenced era which began in 1898. One should not assume that just because English is the most commonly used language that both verbal and nonverbal forms of communication are conducted the same way that they are in America. The Philippines business environment is known to be highly personalized. The communication style of the Philippines has also been perceived as difficult to comprehend due to its diplomatic and complex language which is derived from its Asian roots. (http://www.worldbusinessculture.com/Filipino-Business-Communication-Style.html) It is common in the Philippines, as well as most Asian countries, for people to have an extremely difficult time saying ‘no’ because they tend to try to avoid hurting others feelings. Saying ‘no’ to someone can also be viewed by others as confrontational and unfriendly. Because of this Filipino’s would rather say ‘yes’ even if they mean ‘no.’ (http://www.worldbusinessculture.com/Filipino-Business-Communication-Style.html) Filipinos’ dialogue-oriented, rather emotional communication somewhat resembles Spanish, but is less forceful and exuberant. As a show of respect, Filipinos usually address people by their titles (e.g., Architect Cruz, Attorney Jose, Dr. Romero). Over time, and after a relationship is established, they may address business associate by their informal title or nickname. (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/4205562/National-Cultural-Profiles-Philippines.html) In the Filipino culture a pervasive smile can easily be interpreted as agreement or affirmation in what has just been discussed. That same smile can easily be used to hide embarrassment, aggravation on disagreement. Nonverbal signs of affirmation include the raising of an eyebrow and the jerking of the head upward. A common sign for â€Å"no† include the jerk of the head down. For example, if an individual says â€Å"yes† while pointing their head downward you can be fairly certain that they feel negatively about what you have been discussing. (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/4205562/National-Cultural-Profiles-Philippines.html) Although in most cultures it is common for both men and women to shake hands with one another when they are first introduced or when greeting each other, that is not the case in the Filipino culture. Any form of touching, especially men touching women is frowned upon by Filipinos. (http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=ph#cn-2) The Philippines are split into three different regions called, â€Å"Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.† Gender roles in the Philippines are found in school systems, dating, marriage, and especially their families. When Filipino’s are born they assume their gender role by their sex. Males get more respect for the most part because females take after their mothers and elder women to take less dominating roles, also being more feminine in the jobs they choose to hold. Men are categorized into the more dominating roles in society. Men are brought up to take after their fathers or the elder man in their life. They are defined as being more confident, accomplished, and well-rounded individuals. School systems are strict on students, making them look presentable, especially males. Males are required to have short hair and females must wear skirts down to their shins. Dressing inappropriately is not tolerated. Males and females got to the same school but they divide them into two separate parts of the school. Attending a college or university for the average person is highly unlikely because there is no financial aid available so only the wealthy go and receives the higher education. Education is very important to Filipinos and is stressed by their parents to have the best education possible to be successful. Format for names, the country being a predominant catholic, old folks follow the old traditional way of naming their children after the names of the saints. In Luzon, the largest island and where the capital sits, has a strong western influence, naming mostly patterned like the westerners. The country is patriarchal when it comes to family roles. The male or the fathers are always the head and of the household and the final word when it comes to domestic affair. There are regions, like in south Mindanao, the grand chief of the village is the eldest and the wealthiest of the clan where his power over other members of the clan is important even on domestic affairs. The female or the wife is expected to be the care taker of the household, including keeping up with the children. They do not have voicing power compared to the husband (Heinrich 2008) Dating among the Filipino’s is not usually done unless they are eighteen years old because education is most important. Even then when they start dating the male will pay for the female.