Precision Agriculture: Advantages and Disadvantages

Precision Agriculture Advantages and DisadvantagesPrecision landPrecision acres or precision farming is an untaught creation relying on the existence of in-field variability. It requires the diethylstilboestrolign of new technologies, such(prenominal) as worldwide positioning (GPS), sensors, satellites or aerial images, and information circumspection tools (GIS) to assess and afford variations. Collected information may be apply to more solely direct evaluate optimum sowing density, estimate fertilisers and new(prenominal) inputs pauperisations, and to more accu lay outly presage wander yields. It knock againstks to avoid applying inflexible practices to a crop, regardless of local stigma/climate conditions, and may help to fracture assess local seats of indisposition or lodging.Satellites whollyow husbandmans to easily survey their land.2 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) superintend can find the location of a field to within unrivaled meter. It can then p resent a series of GIS maps that demonstrate which handle ar moist or dry, and whither t here(predicate) is erosion of soil and other soil factors that stunt crop growth. The info can be used by the farmer to automatically regu slowly the machine application of fertilizer and pesticide2.In the American Midwest (US) it is associated non with sustainable market-gardening entirely with mainstream farmers who atomic issue forth 18 trying to maximize pro hold ups by spending notes solely in atomic number 18as that need fertilizer. This practice allows the farmer to take leave the rate of fertilizer across the field according to the need identified by GPS guided Grid Sampling. Fertilizer that would let been spread in areas that dont need it can be placed in areas that do, on that pointby optimizing its use.Precision market-gardening may be used to improve a field or a farm management from several perspectivesagronomical perspective version of cultural practices to stupe fy into account the real needs of the crop (e.g., better fertilization management)technical perspective better margin management at the farm level (e.g. intentning of agricultural activity)environmental perspective diminution of agricultural impacts (better estimation of crop newton needs implying limitation of nitrogen run-off)economical perspective training of the output and/or reduction of the input, increase of efficiency (e.g., lower bell of nitrogen fertilization practice)Other benefits for the farmergeostatistics coordinated farming integrate Pest watchfulness alimental budgetingnutrient managementprecision viticultureAgricultureLandsat programGeostatistics is a peg of statistics focusing on spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict equiprobable distributions for mining operations, it is currently utilise in diverse disciplines including petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geometallurgy, geography, f orestry, environmental deem, landscape ecology, soil science, and agriculture (esp. in precision farming). Geostatistics is applied in varied branches of geography, particularly those involving the spread of disease (epidemiology), the practice of commerce and forces planning (logistics), and the development of efficient spatial net deeds. Geostatistics are incorporated in tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models. storyThis section requires expansion with details.BackgroundWhen any phenomena is measured, the observation methodology will dictate the accuracy of subsequent analysis in geography, this issue is compound by unique variables and spatial patterns such as geospatial topology. An interesting tout in geostatistics is that every location displays close to form of spatial pattern, whether in the form of the environment, climate, pollution, urbanization or human health. This is not to state that all variables are spatially dependent, simply that variables are incapable of measurement split up from their surroundings, such that there can be no perfect control nation. Whether the study is concerned with the nature of traffic patterns in an urban core, or with the analysis of weather patterns over the Pacific, there are always variables which range measurement this is determined directly by the scale and distribution of the data collection, or survey, and its methodology. Limitations in data collection make it im attainable to make a direct measure of continuous spatial data without inferring probabilities, some of these probability functions are applied to create an interpolation surface predicting illimitable variables at innumerable locations.Geostatistical termsRegionalized variable theoryCo class functionSemi-varianceVariogramKriging jog (geostatistics)Sill (geostatistics)Nugget effectCriticismA major contributor to this section (or its creator) appears to brook a conflict of interest with its subject. I t may require cleanup to honour with Wikipedias content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss go on on the talk foliate. (November 2009)Jan W Merks, a mineral take intellectual consultant from Canada, has strongly criticized1 geostatistics since 1992. Referring to it as voodoo science2 and scientific fraud, he claims that geostatistics is an incapacitate branch of statistics. Merks submits2 that geostatisticsignores the variance of Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade,ignores the concept of gradations of freedom of a data set when testing for spatial dependence by applying Fishers F-test to the variance of a set and the first variance term of the ordered set,abuses statistics by not using analysis of variance properly,replaced genuine variances of single distance-weighted average point grades with pseudo-variances of sets of distance-weighted average point grades, violating the wiz-to-one correspondence between variances and functions such as Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade.Furthermore, Merks claims geostatistics inflates mineral reserve and re root words such as in the case of Bre-Xs fraud. Merkss expertise and credibility are stick uped by several company executives, who regularly hire his consulting services3.Philip and Watson take similarly criticized geostatistics in the past 4.There is a consensus that inappropriate use of geostatistics makes the method capable to erroneous reading of results35.Related software programgslib is a set of fortran 77 routines (open source) implementing most of the classical geostatistics estimation and simulation algorithmssgems is a cross-platform (windows, unix), open-source software that implements most of the classical geostatistics algorithms (kriging, Gaussian and indicator simulation, etc) as well as new developments (multiple-points geostatistics). It also put forwards an interactive 3D visualization and offers the scripting capabilities of python.gsta t is an open source computer code for multivariable geostatistical modelling, prediction and simulation. The gstat functionality is also available as an S extension, either as R package or S-Plus library.be posts gstat, R has at least six other packages dedicated to geostatistics and other areas in spatial statistics.Notes1. A website that criticizes Matheronian geostatistics a b See (Merks 1992)3. a b Sandra Rubin, Whistleblower raises doubts over ore bodies, Financial Post, September 30, 2002. See (Philip and Watson 1986).5. Statistics for Spatial Data, revise Edition, Noel A. C. Cressie, ISBN 978-0-471-00255-0.References1. Armstrong, M and Champigny, N, 1988, A Study on Kriging Small Blocks, CIM Bulletin, Vol 82, No 923Armstrong, M, 1992, exemption of Speech? De Geeostatisticis, July, No 143. Champigny, N, 1992, Geostatistics A tool that works, The Northern Miner, may 184. Clark I, 1979, Practical Geostatistics, Applied Science Publishers, London5. David, M, 1977, Geostatisti cal Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam6. Hald, A, 1952, Statistical Theory with Engineering uses, stern Wiley Sons, clean York7. Chils, J.P., Delfiner, P. 1999. Geostatistics modelling spatial un trustedty, Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics, 695 pp.8. Deutsch, C.V., Journel, A.G, 1997. GSLIB Geostatistical software system depository library and Users deal (Applied Geostatistics Series), Second Edition, Oxford University vex, 369 pp., http//www.gslib.com/9. Deutsch, C.V., 2002. Geostatistical Reservoir Modeling, Oxford University Press, 384 pp., http//www.statios.com/WinGslib/index.html10. Isaaks, E.H., Srivastava R.M. Applied Geostatistics. 1989.11. ISO/DIS 11648-1 Statistical aspects of sampling from bulk materials-Part1 General principles12. Journel, A G and Huijbregts, 1978, Mining Geostatistics, Academic Press13.Kitanidis, P.K. Introduction to Geostatistics Applications in Hydrogeology, Cambridge University Pres s. 1997.14. Lantujoul, C. 2002. Geostatistical simulation models and algorithms. Springer, 256 pp.15. Lipschutz, S, 1968, Theory and Problems of Probability, McCraw-Hill Book Company, bleak York.16. Matheron, G. 1962. Trait de gostatistique applique. Tome 1, Editions Technip, Paris, 334 pp.17. Matheron, G. 1989. Estimating and choosing, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.18. McGrew, J. Chapman, Monroe, Charles B., 2000. An introduction to statistical problem solving in geography, second edition, McGraw-Hill, new-made York.19. Merks, J W, 1992, Geostatistics or voodoo science, The Northern Miner, may 1820. Merks, J W, Abuse of statistics, CIM Bulletin, January 1993, Vol 86, No 96621. Myers, Donald E. What Is Geostatistics?22. Philip, G M and Watson, D F, 1986, Matheronian Geostatistics Quo Vadis?, Mathematical Geology, Vol 18, No 123. Sharov, A Quantitative Population Ecology, 1996, http//www.ento.vt.edu/sharov/PopEcol/popecol.html24. Shine, J.A., Wakefield, G.I. A comparison of supervised imagery classification using analyst-chosen and geostatistically-chosen training sets, 1999, http//www.geovista.psu.edu/sites/geocomp99/Gc99/044/gc_044.htm25. Strahler, A. H., and Strahler A., 2006, Introducing somatogenic Geography, 4th Ed., Wiley.26. Volk, W, 1980, Applied Statistics for Engineers, Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, New York.27. Wackernagel, H. 2003. Multivariate geostatistics, Third edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 387 pp.28. Yang, X. S., 2009, front Mathematics for Earth Scientists, Dunedin Academic Press, 240pp.29. Youden, W J, 1951, Statistical Methods for Chemists John Wiley Sons, New York.External thinkKriging link, contains explanations of variance in geostatsArizona university geostats pageA resource on the internet about geostatistics and spatial statisticsOn-Line Library that chronicles Matherons journey from classical statistics to the new science of geostatisticsRetrieved from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeostatisticsCategories GeostatisticsH idden categories Statistics articles needing expert upkeep Articles needing expert attention from August 2009 All articles needing expert attention Articles scatty in-text citations from January 2009 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles to be spread out from January 2010 All articles to be expanded Wikipedia expand-section box with explanation text Articles to be expanded from August 2008 Wikipedia articles with sections containing possible conflicts of interest combine farming (or integrated agriculture) is a comm plainly and broadly speaking used word to explain a more integrated forward motion to farming as compared to existing monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop production and may some clock times be known as structured Biosystems.While not frequently considered as part of the permaculture movement combine country is a similar whole systems approach to agriculture1. There consider been efforts to link the two together such as at the 2007 world(prenominal) Permaculture Conference in Brazil2. Agro-ecology (which was veritable at University of atomic number 20 Santa Cruz) and Bio-dynamic farming also describe similar integrated approaches.Examples includepig tractor systems where the animals are captive in crop fields well prior to worksing and till the field by digging for rootspoultry used in orchards or vineyards after harvest to clear rotten fruit and widows weeds while fertilizing the soilcattle or other livestock allowed to range cover crops between crops on farms that contain both cropland and pasture (or where transhumance is employed) urine based agricultural systems that provide way for effective and efficient recycle of farm nutrients producing fuel, fertilizer and a compost tea/mineralized irrigation water in the process.In 1993 FARRE (Forum de lAgriculture Raisonne Respecteuse lEnvironnement) developed agricultural techniques France as part of an hear to reconcile agricultural methods with the principles of sustainable development. FARRE, promotes an integrated and/or multi-sector approach to food production that includes profitability, safety, animal welfare, social responsibility and environmental care.Zero Emissions query and Initiatives ( make in 1994 by the eco-entrepreneur 1) developed a similar approach to FARRE desire to promote agricultural and industrial production models that sought to incorporate natures information into the process. ZERI helped support an effort by an environmental engineer from Mauritius named George Chan.Chan working with a network of poly-culture farming pioneers began refining interconnected Farming practices that had already been developed in south-east Asia in the 60,70s and 80s, building on the ancient dark soil farming practice.In China, programs embracing this form of integrated farming have been happy in demonstrating how an intensive growing systems can use organic and sustainable far ming practices, while providing a high agriculture yield.Taking what he learned from the Chinese during his time there, Chan worked at the UN University in the 1990s and forwarded an approach to incorporated Farming which was termed structured Biomass Systems working particularizedally under the UNU/ZERI ZERI Bag Program. Chan during his work with UNU sought to make the case that Integrated Biomass Systems were well suited to help small island nations and low lying tropical regions become more self-reliant and prosperous in the production of food3. work with ZERI, he developed several prototypes for this approach around the world including sites in Namibia and Fiji. The scientifically verified results in a UNDP sponsored congress in 1997 resulted in the adoption of the IBS by the State Government of Paran, Brazil where dozens of piggeries have applied the system generating food, energy while improving health and environmental conditions.Montfort Boys Town in Fiji was one of the f irst Integrated Biomass Systems developed away(p) of Southeast Asia with the support of UNU, UNDP and other international agencies. The project which is still useable continues to be a model of how farm operations can provide multiple benefits to stakeholders both local and international.ZERI Bag had a significant African component that included assisting Father Godfrey Nzamujo in the development of the Songhai Farm Integrated Farming project in Benin4 .Most recently The Heifer Foundation a major international NGO based in the USA has interpreted a lead role in deploying Integrated Farming so that it can be replicated globally as an effective approach to sustainable farming in non-affluent regions such as Vietnam5.References1. Steve Divers work linking Integrated Farming with Permaculture http//attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/perma.html2. Report includes reference to presentation on Integrated Farming by permaculture and ZERI practitioner Eric Fedus and Alexandre Takamatsu3. Small I slands and ZERI A unique case for the Application of ZERI A Paper presented by George Chan of the United Nations University at an International Symposium on Small Islands and Sustainable organic evolution organized by the United Nations University and the interior(a) Land say-so of Japan http//www.gdrc.org/oceans/chan.html4. ZERI Bag was designed to focus on small scale deployment of appropriate technologies with a focus on the Integrated Biomass System approach developed by ZERI and George Chan http//www.zeri.unam.na/africa.htm5. http//www.heifer.org/site/c.edJRKQNiFiG/b.2877337/External linksFARRE homepageIntegrated farming of angle, crop and livestockDesign an construction of an intergated fish farmIntegrated Farming System by George Chanwiki on integrated farmingSonghai Centre in BeninIPMIn agriculture, integrated pest management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of antonymous strategies including automatonlike devices, physical devices, genetic, biolo gical, cultural management, and chemical management. These methods are done in three stages prevention, observation, and intervention. It is an ecological approach with a main goal of significantly reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides while at the same time managing pest populations at an acceptable level.1For their leadership in developing and spreadhead IPM worldwide, Dr. Perry Adkisson and Dr. Ray F. Smith received the 1997 World Food Prize.History of IPM before long after World War II, when synthetic wormicides became widely available, entomologists in California developed the concept of supervised insect control. Around the same time, entomologists in cotton-belt states such as Arkansas were advocating a similar approach. Under this scheme, insect control was supervised by qualified entomologists, and insecticide applications were based on conclusions reached from periodic overseeing of pest and natural-enemy populations. This was viewed as an alternative to calend ar-based insecticide programs. manage control was based on a sound knowledge of the ecology and analysis of projected trends in pest and natural-enemy populations.Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for the integrated control that University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s. Integrated control sought to identify the outperform combine of chemical and biological controls for a given insect pest. chemical insecticides were to be used in manner least disruptive to biological control. The term integrated was thus synonymous with congenial. Chemical controls were to be applied only after regular monitoring indicated that a pest population had reached a level (the economic threshold) that required treatment to prevent the population from stretchiness a level (the economic injury level) at which economic losings would exceed the cost of the artificial control measures.IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded to include simulated military operation other than just chemical and biological controls. Artificial controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control, but these now had to be compatible with control tactics for all classes of pests. Other tactics, such as host- specify oppositeness and cultural manipulations, became part of the IPM arsenal. IPM added the multidisciplinary element, involving entomologists, plant pathologists, nematologists, and weed scientists.In the United States, IPM was theorise into national policy in February 1972 when President Nixon directed federal agencies to take steps to advance the concept and application of IPM in all pertinent sectors. In 1979, President Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating Committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices. (references The History of IPM, BioControl Reference Center. 1How IPM worksAn IPM regime can be quite simple or sophisticated. Historically, the ma in focus of IPM programs was on agricultural insect pests.2 Although originally developed for agricultural pest management, IPM programs are now developed to encompass diseases, weeds, and other pests that interfere with the management objectives of sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and partnership gardens.An IPM system is designed around six basic components The US environmental Protection Agency has a useful set of IPM principles. 21. Acceptable pest levels The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the move can be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and frequently unachievable. IPM programs first work to establish acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls if those thresholds are crossed. These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one site to have a weed such as white clover, but at anot her site it may not be acceptable. This stops the pest gaining foeman to chemicals produced by the plant or applied to the crops. If many a(prenominal) of the pests are killed then any that have resistance to the chemical will rapidly reproduce forming a resistant population. By not killing all the pests there are some un-resistant pests left over(p) that will dilute any resistant genes that appear.2. Preventive cultural practices Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defense, together with plant quarantine and cultural techniques such as crop sanitation (e.g. removal of diseased plants to prevent spread of infection).3. Monitoring Regular observation is the backside of IPM. Observation is broken into two steps, first inspection and second assignment.3 opthalmic inspection, insect and spore traps, and other measurement methods and monitoring tools are used to monitor pest levels. Accurate pest identification is critical to a successful IPM program. Record-keeping is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behavior and reproductive cycles of sharpen pests. Since insects are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on the temperature of their environment. Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree days. Monitor the degree days of an environment to determine when is the optimal time for a specific insects outbreak.4. Mechanical controls Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding.5. Biological controls Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with stripped-down environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target pests. Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorgan isms (e.g. Bt, entomopathogenic kingdom Fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fit in this category.6. Chemical controls Synthetic pesticides are in general only used as required and often only at specific times in a pests life cycle. Many of the newer pesticide groups are derived from plants or naturally occurring substances (e.g. nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone analogues), and kick upstairs biology-based or ecological techniques are under evaluation.IPM is applicable to all types of agriculture and sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens. Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for organic farming (the synthetic chemical option is simply not considered). For large-scale, chemical-based farms, IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs of pesticide application material and labor.1. Proper identification of pest What is it? Cases of mistaken identity may result in idle actions. If plant damage due to over-watering are mistaken for a fungous infection, a spray may be used needlessly and the plant still dies.2. Learn pest and host life cycle and biology. At the time you see a pest, it may be too late to do much about it except maybe spray with a pesticide. Often, there is another stage of the life cycle that is susceptible to impediment actions. For example, weeds reproducing from last years seed can be prevented with mulches. Also, instruction what a pest needs to survive allows you to remove these.3. Monitor or sample environment for pest population How many are here? Preventative actions must be taken at the correct time if they are to be effective. For this reason, once you have correctly identified the pest, you pay off monitoring BEFORE it becomes a problem. For example, in take cafeterias where roaches may be expected to appear , sticky traps are set out before school starts. Traps are checked at regular intervals so you can see them right away and do something before they get out of hand. about of the things you might want to monitor about pest populations include Is the pest present/absent? What is the distribution all over or only in certain spots? Is the pest population increasing or decreasing?4. Establish action threshold (economic, health or aesthetic) How many are too many? In some cases, a certain number of pests can be tolerated. Soybeans are quite tolerant of defoliation, so if you have only a few caterpillars in the field and their population is not increasing dramatically, there is no need to do anything. Conversely, there is a point at which you MUST do something. For the farmer, that point is the one at which the cost of damage by the pest is MORE than the cost of control. This is an economic threshold. Tolerance of pests varies also by whether or not they are a health hazard (low toleran ce) or merely a ornamental damage (high tolerance in a non-commercial situation). Personal tolerances also vary many deal dislike any insect some people cannot tolerate dandelions in their yards. Different sites may also have variable requirements based on specific areas. White clover may be perfectly acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course, but unacceptable in the fairway where it could cause disarray in the field of play.45. Choose an appropriate combination of management tactics For any pest situation, there will be several options to consider. Options include, mechanical or physical control, cultural controls, biological controls and chemical controls. Mechanical or physical controls include picking pests off plants, or using profit or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing or storing waste properly, removing diseased areas of plan ts properly. Biological controls can be support either through conservation of natural piranhas or augmentation of natural predators5. augmentative control includes the introduction of naturally occurring predators at either an inundative or inoculative level6. An inundative clear would be one that seeks to inundate a site with a pests predator to impact the pest population78. An inoculative release would be a smaller number of pest predators to supplement the natural population and provide ongoing control.9 Chemical controls would include horticultural oils or the application of pesticides such as insecticides and herbicides. A Green Pest Management IPM program would use pesticides derived from plants, such as botanicals, or other naturally occurring materials.6. Evaluate results How did it work? Evaluation is often one of the most important steps.10 This is the process to review an IPM program and the results it generated. intercommunicate the following questions is useful Did your actions have the desired effect? Was the pest prevented or managed to your satisfaction? Was the method itself satisfactory? Were there any unintended side effects? What will you do in the future for this pest situation? Understanding the effectiveness of the IPM program allows the site manager to make modifications to the IPM plan prior to pests reaching the action threshold and requiring action again.Notes1. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Pesticides and Food What Integrated Pest Management Means.2. http//www.umass.edu/umext/ipm/publications/guidelines/index.html.3. Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 10, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005.4. Purdue University Turf Pest Management Correspondence Course, Introduction, 20065. http//www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/6. http//www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/ecbtrich.htm7. http//pinellas.ifas.ufl.edu/green_pros/ipm_basics.shtml8. http//www.kn owledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inundative_release.htm9. http//www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inoculative_release_.htm10. Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 12, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005.References* Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs An Integrated Pest Management Guide.Steve H. Dreistadt, Mary Louise Flint, et al., ANR Publications, University of California, Oakland, California, 1994. 328pp, paper, photos, reference tables, diagrams.* Bennett, Gary W., Ph.d., Owens, John M., Ph.d., Corrigan, Robert M, Ph.d. Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th Edition, pages 10, 11, 12, Purdue University, Questex, 2005.* Jahn, GC, PG Cox., E Rubia-Sanchez, and M Cohen 2001. The quest for connections developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413-430, In S. Peng and B. Hardy eds. Rice inquiry for Food security system and Poverty Alleviation. Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, 31 surround 3 April 2000, Los Baos, Philippines. Los Baos (Philippines) International Rice Research Institute. 692 p.* Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C Pol, N. Chhorn and V Preap 2001. Sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. In P. Cox and R Chhay eds. The Impact of Agricultural Research for Development in Southeast Asia Proceedings of an International Conference held at the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 24-26 Oct. 2000, Phnom Penh (Cambodia) CARDI.* Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically ground Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. Cuperus). CAB International Pp. 315-366.* Kogan, M 1998. integrated PEST MANAGEMENTHistorical Perspectives and Contemporary Developments, Annual Review of bugology Vol. 43 243-270 (Volume publication date January 1998) (doi10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243)* Nonveiller, Guido 1984. Catalogue comment et illustr des insectes du Cameroun dintrt agricole (apparitions, rpartition, importance) / University of Belgrade/Institut pour la protection des plantes* US Environmental Protection Ag